Incluye bibliografías

TABLE OF CONTENTS --
Part I: Theoretical introduction --

1 Principles of food engineering --

1.1 Introduction --
1.2 The Damköhler equations --
1.3 Investigation of the Damköhler equations by means of similarity theory --
1.4 Analogies --
1.5 Dimensional analysis --
1.6 System theoretical approaches to food engineering --
1.7 Food safety and quality assurance --

Further reading --

2 Characterization of substances used in the confectionery industry --

2.1 Qualitative characterization of substances --
2.2 Quantitative characterization of confectionery products --
2.3 Preparation of recipes --
2.4 Composition of chocolate confectioneries biscuits and wafers made for special nutritional purposes --

Further reading --

3 Engineering properties of foods --

3.1 Introduction --
3.2 Density --
3.3 Fundamental functions of thermodynamics --
3.4 Latent heat and heat of reaction --
3.5 Thermal conductivity --
3.6 Thermal diffusivity and Prandtl number --
3.7 Mass diffusivity and Schmidt number --
3.8 Dielectric properties --
3.9 Electrical conductivity --
3.10 Infrared absorption properties --
3.11 Physical characteristics of food powders --

Further reading --

4 The rheology of foods and sweets --

4.1 Rheology: its importance in the confectionery industry --
4.2 Stress and strain --
4.3 Solid behaviour --
4.4 Fluid behaviour --
4.5 Viscosity of solutions --
4.6 Viscosity of emulsions --
4.7 Viscosity of suspensions --
4.8 Rheological properties of gels --
4.9 Rheological properties of sweets --
4.10 Rheological properties of wheat flour doughs --
4.11 Relationship between food oral processing and rheology --

Further reading --

5 Introduction to food colloids --
5.1 The colloidal state --
5.2 Formation of colloids --
5.3 Properties of macromolecular colloids --
5.4 Properties of colloids of association --
5.5 Properties of interfaces --
5.6 Electrical properties of interfaces --
5.7 Theory of colloidal stability: the DLVO theory --
5.8 Stability and changes of colloids and coarse dispersions --
5.9 Emulsion instability --
5.10 Phase inversion --
5.11 Foams --
5.12 Gelation as a second-order phase transition --

Further reading --

Part II: Physical operations --

6 Comminution --

6.1 Changes during size reduction --
6.2 Rittinger’s surface theory --
6.3 Kick’s volume theory --
6.4 The third or Bond theory --
6.5 Energy requirement for comminution --
6.6 Particle size distribution of ground products --
6.7 Particle size distributions --
6.8 Kinetics of grinding --
6.9 Comminution by five-roll refiners --
6.10 Grinding by a melangeur --
6.11 Comminution by a stirred ball mill --
Further reading --

7 Mixing/kneading --

7.1 Technical solutions to the problem of mixing --
7.2 Power characteristics of a stirrer --
7.3 Mixing time characteristics of a stirrer --
7.4 Representative shear rate and viscosity for mixing --
7.5 Calculation of the Reynolds number for mixing --
7.6 Mixing of powders --
7.7 Mixing of fluids of high viscosity --
7.8 Effect of impeller speed on heat and mass transfer --
7.9 Mixing by blade mixers --
7.10 Mixing rolls --
7.11 Mixing of two liquids --

Further reading --

8 Solutions --

8.1 Preparation of aqueous solutions of carbohydrates --
8.2 Solubility of sucrose in water --
8.3 Aqueous solutions of sucrose and glucose syrup --
8.4 Aqueous sucrose solutions containing invert sugar --
8.5 Solubility of sucrose in the presence of starch syrup and invert sugar --
8.6 Rate of dissolution --
8.7 Solubility of bulk sweeteners --

Further reading --

9 Evaporation --
9.1 Theoretical background: Raoult’s law --
9.2 Boiling point of sucrose/water solutions at atmospheric pressure --
9.3 Application of a modification of Raoult’s law to calculate the boiling point of carbohydrate/water solutions at decreased pressure --
9.4 Vapour pressure formulae for carbohydrate/water solutions --
9.5 Practical tests for controlling the boiling points of sucrose solutions --
9.6 Modelling of an industrial working process for hard boiled sweets --
9.7 Boiling points of bulk sweeteners --

Further reading --

10 Crystallization --

10.1 Introduction --
10.2 Crystallization from solution --
10.3 Crystallization from melts --
10.4 Crystal size distributions --
10.5 Batch crystallization --
10.6 Isothermal and non-isothermal recrystallization --
10.7 Methods for studying the supermolecular structure of fat melts --
10.8 Crystallization of glycerol esters: Polymorphism --
10.9 Crystallization of cocoa butter --
10.10 Crystallization of fat masses --
10.11 Crystallization of confectionery fats with a high trans-fat portion --
10.12 Modelling of chocolate cooling processes and tempering --
10.13 EU programme ProPraline --

Further reading --

11 Gelling emulsifying stabilizing and foam formation --

11.1 Hydrocolloids used in confectionery --
11.2 Agar --
11.3 Alginates --
11.4 Carrageenans --
11.5 Furcellaran --
11.6 Gum arabic --
11.7 Gum tragacanth --
11.8 Guaran gum --
11.9 Locust bean gum --
11.10 Pectin --
11.11 Starch --
11.12 Xanthan gum --
11.13 Gelatin --
11.14 Egg proteins --
11.15 Foam formation --

Further reading --

12 Transport --

12.1 Types of transport --
12.2 Calculation of flow rate of non-newtonian fluids --
12.3 Transporting dessert masses in long pipes --
12.4 Changes in pipe direction --
12.5 Laminar unsteady flow --
12.6 Transport of flour and sugar by airflow --

Further reading --

13 Pressing --

13.1 Applications of pressing in the confectionery industry --
13.2 Theory of pressing --
13.3 Cocoa liquor pressing --
Further reading --

14 Extrusion --

14.1 Flow through a converging die --
14.2 Feeders used for shaping confectionery pastes --
14.3 Extrusion cooking --
14.4 Roller extrusion --

Further reading --

15 Particle agglomeration: instantization and tabletting --
15.1 Theoretical background --
15.2 Processes of agglomeration --
15.3 Granulation by fluidization --
15.4 Tabletting --

Further reading --

Part III: Chemical and complex operations: stability of sweets: artisan chocolate and confectioneries --

16 Chemical operations (inversion and caramelization) ripening and complex operations --
16.1 Inversion and caramelization --
16.2 Acrylamide formation --
16.3 Alkalization of cocoa material --
16.4 Ripening --
16.5 Complex operations --
16.6 Drying/frying baking and roasting --

Further reading --

17 Water activity shelf life and storage --
17.1 Water activity --
17.2 Shelf life and storage --
17.3 Storage scheduling --

Further reading --

18 Stability of food systems --
18.1 Common use of the concept of food stability --
18.2 Stability theories: types of stability --
18.3 Shelf life as a case of marginal stability --
18.4 Stability matrix of a food system --

Further reading --

19 Artisan chocolate and confectioneries --

19.1 Actuality of artisanship in the confectionery practice --
19.2 The characteristics of the artisan products --
19.3 Raw materials and machinery --
19.4 The characteristics of the artisan confectionery technologies --
19.5 Managing an artisan workshop --
19.6 An easy and effective shaping technology for producing praline bars --

Further reading --

Part IV: Appendices --

1 Data on engineering properties of materials used and made by the confectionery industry --

A1.1 Carbohydrates --
A1.2 Oils and fats --
A1.3 Raw materials semi-finished products and finished products --
2 Comparison of Brix and Baumé concentrations of aqueous sucrose solutions at 20 ∘C (68 ∘F) --

3 Survey of fluid models: some trends in rheology --

A3.1 Decomposition method for calculation of flow rate of rheological models --

A3.2 Calculation of the friction coefficient (��) of non-newtonian fluids in the laminar region --

A3.3 Tensorial representation of constitutive equations: The fading memory of viscoelastic fluids --

A3.4 Computer simulations in food rheology and science --

A3.5 Ultrasonic and photoacoustic testing --

Further reading --

4 Fractals --

A4.1 Irregular forms: fractal geometry --

A4.2 Box-counting dimension --

A4.3 Particle-counting method --

A4.4 Fractal backbone dimension --

Further reading --

5 Introduction to structure theory --

A5.1 The principles of the structure theory of blickle and seitz --

A5.2 Modelling a part of fudge processing plant by structure theory --

Further reading --

6 Technological layouts --

Further reading --

References --

Index

Confectionery and chocolate manufacture has been dominated by large-scale industrial processing for several decades. It is often the case though, that a trial and error approach is applied to the development of new products and processes, rather than verified scientific principles.

Confectionery and Chocolate Engineering: Principles and Applications, Second edition, adds to information presented in the first edition on essential topics such as food safety, quality assurance, sweets for special nutritional purposes, artizan chocolate, and confectioneries. In addition, information is provided on the fading memory of viscoelastic fluids, which are briefly discussed in terms of fractional calculus, and gelation as a second order phase transition. Chemical operations such as inversion, caramelization, and the Maillard reaction, as well as the complex operations including conching, drying, frying, baking, and roasting used in confectionery manufacture are also described.

This book provides food engineers, scientists, technologists and students in research, industry, and food and chemical engineering-related courses with a scientific, theoretical description and analysis of confectionery manufacturing, opening up new possibilities for process and product improvement, relating to increased efficiency of operations, the use of new materials, and new applications for traditional raw materials.